History of Transportation Essays

History of Transportation Essays History of Transportation Essay History of Transportation Essay History of Transportation system Transportation system was, is and will be one of the most of import issues of peoples life. It accounts centuries. Definition of transit can be different, as the ground, it can intend the trip between two topographic points, two small towns, for trade, war or possibly merely for journey. It can be done utilizing air, H2O or land. Transports transformed during centuries and today look much different than in 19th or at the beginning of 20th century and much different than it was in early phases. Transportation is an built-in portion of history, history itself, in point of fact, has frequently been determined by motion across the land-movement of ground forcess, of whole peoples in migration and of trade. In the early phases advancement rate in land transit was really slow. Man from the beginning was characterized by motion from one topographic point to another, seeking some nutrient, assailing his neighbours, to happen married woman in other groups and so on. The chief ends of adult male in early phases were: hunting and abduction. But all of these was frequently behind the human migration, the stronger suppressing the weaker. Man for on his ain pess could go more than three stat mis per hr. Despite the flexibleness of his physical construction, he was compared to other animate beings, which were stronger, more nimble, and swifter, but the human animate being had certain advantages, large encephalon, flexible manus construction, he had to walk unsloped, liberating his custodies for the usage of tools. Later adult male started to measure replacements. First he had dragged all the things he needed, but subsequently the adult male understood that person else besides could make it by his way and ordinance. The animate beings: Canis familiariss, elephants, donkeys camels became the first, who appeared in the history of transit. The earliest vehicle seems to hold been the sleigh. Very perchance the sleigh had its beginning in a simple subdivision drawn behind a adult male or animal. For thousand old ages ago the Egyptians used much the same sort of vehicle, but with heavierA and stronger smugglers, to transport immense blocks of rock, some deliberation every bit pulp as 800 or 900 tones. So as we see the sleigh was really utile, but subsequently nevertheless the wheel made its advancement. The oldest illustrations of wheel are found in Mesopotamia and day of the month from the 4th millenary B.C. , among the Sumerians, Akkadians, Elamites and Chaldeans. Sumerians were the first people who reach the civilisation, so they seem to hold been the first who used the full wheel. At the get downing it was three boards of wood, which were pegged together in a unsmooth circle. Soon they strengthened it, utilizing a metal set or tyre and eventually hollowed out for elation and equipped with radiuss. For a long clip the chariots was reserved for the aristocracy, for trade or by the common people as waggons, but it was later. Sumerian chariot changed really small over a thousand old ages, until the debut of the Equus caballus from cardinal Asia. In the 17th centuryA B.C. horse-drawn chariot made its visual aspect. It became the chief arm of the Assyrians, who finally subdues most of the civilised universe. [ 1 ] The biggest transmutations in conveyance sector started from the building of roads. Romans constructed a immense route system that made possible to utilize different types of vehicles and besides develop new 1s. They had 20 different types of vehicles, from the two-wheeled carpentum, which was really fast and light and had aA leather hoot for protection of drivers, to the four-wheel carruca, which could transport whole household. The first existent roads, that were constructed were really short. Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar had its celebrated Procession street, which was made with big rocks overA a foundation of asphalt, which led through the metropolis to a significant span across the Euphrates. For easing the transit of heavy blocks of rock the Egyptians reinforced roads, which were short, but really wide. Timess changed and from twelvemonth to twelvemonth people started to contrive more energetically and interesting things for transit. Historically Equus caballus, drawing a vehicle was really utile for people, but subsequently they started to make different sorts of setup, which provided for them more energy to acquire from one topographic point to another, from clip to clip. And so we come to the funny mechanical vehicles of the sixteenth and 17th centuries and which were operated by land levers. First everything started with innovation of different and little passenger cars, which was possible to drive without Equus caballuss. In 1645 Jean Theson make a smallA four-wheeled passenger car, which was driven without Equus caballuss for two sitting adult male. Another innovation was made by German, HautschA around 1600, which besides was used without Equus caballuss. The ancient Chinese had attached some canvass for their cart, which helped them along, the voter Johann FriedrichA built a vehicle of this type in Europe in 1543. In 1600 Simon StevinA a military applied scientist, built a celebrated chariot, it had two masts, a plough-shaped rudder and all sorts of clever devices for paring or take downing the canvass with despatch. In 1826 an English adult male, George Pocock launched smaller passenger car, which he called winging Chariot , of class without Equus caballuss, it worked mean from 15 to 20 stat mis an hr. There was besides another wind-propelled vehicles, named Flying Coach , which was invented by Non Jose Boscasa and Hacquet s Eolienne The latter, favored by a sou-west air current, really sailed through the streets of Paris one twenty-four hours in 1834. The first steam passenger car which really worked and could non travel faster than 4 stat mis per hourA was Nicolas Cugnot s fardier , a big cart. Intended to transport guns or other heavy tonss, it was made of stout beams and had three immense, iron-strapped wheels, with power delivered direct to the individual wheel in forepart by two monolithic cylinders. A large boiler and firebox were suspended over the front wheel, doing it even more cumbrous. This awful monster, which was tested before the Minister Choiseul in 1769, had to halt every 15 proceedingss to acquire up more steam and vibrated so much that it eventually escaped from its discoverer and torus into a wall of the armory. However, it was the first vehicle in which the push of Pistons successfully turnedA a drive wheel ; in order words it was truly the first car. [ 2 ] The fardier can still be seen at the Conservatoire diethylstilbestrols Arts et Metiers in Paris. On position at the Birmingham Museum is the 2nd precursor of the car, a little steam theoretical account built by William Murdock, Watt s helper in 1784. With its visible radiation wheels and small smokestack at the dorsum it looks frail compared to the heavy fardier . The 3rd innovator vehicle was Oliver Evans s steam passenger car, which he drove through the streets of Philadelphia toward the terminal of 1804. It was a immense amphibian boat which had been built to dredge the Schuylkill River. Evans named it the Orukter Amphibolos or the digger which works all ways because it was equipped with wheels for land travel and paddle wheel for the H2O. And it really worked, pounding several stat mis over uneven land before come ining the river, where theA paddle wheel took over from the belts which drove the wheels. In 1891 Richard Trevithick, helped by Andre Vivian, built a steam passenger car with the engine in the rear which could transport about a twelve riders at nine stat mis an hr. Two old ages subsequently, beforeA turning to the steam railroad, Trevithick really ran aA steam trike through the streets of London. In the following 30 old ages or so rather a figure of ego -propelled steam passenger cars were built and operated on the new, difficult surfaced roads of England and with considerable success. Outstanding was the steam carriageA of Goldsworthy Gurney, which weighed two tones. By 1832 his manager was running on agenda four times daily between Gloucester and Cheltenham. In 396A trips it carried 3 000 riders without bad luck. Around 1834 Walter Hancock was runing several lines, including his Paddington-City of London tally. But all these managers disappeared and the same happened in France even through Onesiphore Pecqueur in 1828 had invented true modern maneuvering with two wheels , and the derived function for a rear-wheel thrust. Subsequently train became really popular among other conveyances, its success was resistless, of class because it could travel faster with great safety and economic system and besides could transport more riders. The railway involvements combines with proprietors of Equus caballus drawn phases, with people who sold Equus caballuss, with turnpike companies, and husbandmans who grew oats for fresh fish -pushed through a series of Torahs haltering and taxing the route locomotives, prohibiting them to go faster than four stat mis an hr and eventually necessitating a adult male with a ruddy flag to predate each automotive vehicle on a public main road. The latter act was non repealed until 1896. therefore with the failure of the steam managers Britain was deprived of any opportunity for an early lead in the car field. Bollees, were father and boies, who brought steam back on the route. Their first machine was the Obeissante a 15- HP monster weighing five tones and going at 24 stat mis p er hr. It was good received when it wasA shown in Paris in 1873. Five old ages subsequently the Mancelle , a much smaller machine, made its importance, it was much more economical. By this clip Bollee machines became known throughout the Europe. There was the Marie-Anne , Nouvelle of 1880, which could make 27 stat mis per hr, per Avant-Courrier of the same twelvemonth and the Rapide of 1881. Count Albert de Dion, with the mechanic Georges Bouton, worked out a small three-wheeler in 1883A which could be drive by one adult male. He followed it with others, faster and more economical. But the chief incommodiousnesss remained: the driver had to stock H2O and coal, light the fire, delay for his auto to acquire up steam and eventually he had to abandon all ideas of going faster so 24 stat mis per hr prescribed by jurisprudence. There is a great demand . Baudry de Saunier wrote, to bring forth about immediately and with small force per unit area the measure of steam needed and to make it with a purely non-explosive boiler.AÂ » Leon Serpollet, last of the great steam-car discoverers, did primly this, doing the Paris to Enghien-less-Bains run in 1888 on a sort trike which answered Baudry de Saunier s equipments. In 1890, with Ernst Archdeacon, he made the Paris-Lyon tally in 10 yearss. At Nice in 1902 Serpollet achieved a velocity of 75 stat mis per hr. An eclectic car by Nicolas RaffardA appeared in Paris in 1883. About the same clip an English adult male, Magnus Volk, brought out a similar auto, while a passenger car builder named Jentaud produced one with a seven horse-power engine that could do 15 stat mis an hr. Later on, a racing auto by Jenataud achieved a universe record- 56 stat mis per hr. This was eventually capped by Camille Jenatzy s electric Jamais Contente , which did 65 stat mis per hr. At the terminal of nineteenthA A century, when the gasolene car was still immature, it seemed for a clip as if the electric auto might be the car of the hereafter. Many were built -silent, powerful, and comfy and were a common sight up into the 1920s, particularly in the metropoliss. But electric grip had a serious defect: the batteries frequently weighed a ton, and the driver had to halt often to reload them. [ 3 ] It is hard to state, who was the discoverer of the first engine. Philippe Lebon in 1800 planned to detonate a potpourri of air and illuming gas in a cylinder to travel a piston.. Other discoverers used gases and hydrocarbons as fuel and experimented largely in design. Combustion engine foremost became commercially successful in center of 19th century with little gas engines, , whose discoverer was Gallic, Joseph Etienne Lenoir. The following was to compact the mixture before detonating it, an thought which was worked out in footings of the conventional engine by Beau de Rochas, in 1862. The thought was taken up in 1867 by Nikolaus Otto, he produced engine two times, as economical one and every bit fast as Lenoir s. His four-cycle Otto Silent of 1876 led straight to the modern car engine. Daimler, hitting upon gasolene as a fuel, produced a lightweight engine which he tested on a bike in 1885, therefore inadvertently contriving the bike. His first car was a four-wheeler. Benz s was a simple three-wheeler, but it had some characteristics, that anticipated the modern automobile. , a fundamental water-cooling radiator, differential cogwheel and electrical alternatively of fire ignition. Its engine was a four-cycle. Like the Daimler, its velocity was around 10 stat mis per hr. . Daimler sold his patent to Rene Panhard and the applied scientist Emile Levassor, who wanted to present the car to France. The first trial was in 1890 and 1891. The aim was to travel from Porte dIvryA to the Viaduct of Auteuil and back without engine problem, an aim that was shortly achieved. After this the house of Ponhard-Levassor received its first order and shortly was sharing it with Armand Peugeot who besides used the patent of Daimler. In 1894 by Pierre Giffard of the Petit Journal organized the first great race betweenA Paris and Rouen-77 stat mis, the competition was between all types of cars: whether steam, electric, or gasolene. The victor was Count Albert de Dion, who averaged 13 stat mis per hr in the small steam auto. In 1895 a 2nd race was organized, much longer and more hard, fro Paris to Bordeaux and return, a distance of 744 stat mis. Steam was represented by one of count de Dion s autos, two Serpollets, and Bollee s Mancelle , gasolene by a Panhard Levassor and three Peugeots and electricity by Jeantaud. From the 21 vehicles, which participated, Panhard Levassor was who won, finishing the class in less than half of 100 hours anticipated by the organisers. The high quality of gasolene over steam and electricity was proved beyond a uncertainty. The race proved besides that an car, like a bike could and should sit upon air. Michelin Brothers had been proved a success -even through they had to be changed by the drivers every 93 stat mis. The following unit of ammunition was infernal and homicidal, right up to the Indianapolis race of today, the 24 hors of the Le Mans, of Monte Carlo, of other topographic points. There was the Tour de France, from Paris to Berlin, the Paris-Vienna, the Gordon Bennett Cup and the bloody Paris- Madrid race of 1903, in which was killed Marcel Renault. During the Competition the roads between metropoliss were turned into huffy circuses filled with billowing crowds. Out of the noise was born Germany s Taunus meet, Italy s Monza, Englands Brooklands and in the United StatesA , the Atlantic City. From twelvemonth to twelvemonth the cars improved. Then there were mass meetings and competitions, which sent the cars in different sides of the universe. The United States, saw its first successful gasolene car in 1893-that of Charles and Frank Duryea. It was a little, four-horsepower touring car with small engine. American Automobile industry comes form 1896, when the Duryea Motor Wagon Company produced 14 autos. The First Packard introduced in 1899. But the existent part of United States was in mass production and the start participant, her was Henry Ford, who is celebrated for all of us. Henry Ford foremost started with root, but subsequently he left the thought. He put together his first successful gasolene roadster in 1896, so series of autos 999 , the Arrow and others and could non decideA , which one of them was better. The reply on this inquiry, later was received in Europe, foremost by Citroen and so by others. The immediate consequence was the Model T Ford. In 1909 Henry Ford had written that that the car of the hereafter must be superior to the present auto to engender assurance in the adult male of limited agencies, and sufficiently lower in monetary value to see gross revenues for an tremendously increased end product. He said: the auto of the hereafter must be a auto for people the market for a lower-priced auto is limitless. A [ 4 ] And latter, every one proverb, that he was truly write, because the figure of sold autos aggressively increased. Between 1908 and 1928 there were sold more than 15 million Model T Fords. During 1925, merely in one twen ty-four hours entirely, more than 9000 were built. [ 5 ] Later the rivals and replacements followed the illustration of Henry Ford, because it was truly good thought, who else could conceive of and make it. The First design of passenger car in Italy, which could run without Equus caballuss, was done by celebrated creative person Leonardo district attorney Vinci, if we look back.A But Father Barsanti and Professor Mattenci were, who together took outA a patent for a gas engine in 1854. In 1894 Colonel Bordino produced a little automobile.A But the existent beginning was in 1895, the twelvemonth the celebrated Agnelli created the no less famed Fiat in Turin. A Fiat in 1907 won a brilliant ternary triumph: the Traga Florio, the Sarthe circuit and the Emperor s Cup.A The route had been prepared for the elegant car, for cars, which are named as Lancia, Ferrari, Maserati and Alfa-Romeo. Now the car has everything it needed, things such as four-cylinder engine, wheels of the same size all around, electric lighting, an electrical self-starter, and for all of that we have to be grateful for American discoverer Charles Kettering, who invented this car in 1911. [ 6 ] Looking at all these historical points we saw that the transit was of import non merely in 19th century and today, but it comes from much earlier period, people used transit for different grounds.During many old ages transit transformed and the period from the 19th century to the nowadays was the period of astonishing alterations and advancements in car industry.A Transportation started by pess with adult male from early stagesA and today continues with luxury cars. In past we saw that the car was really luxury and really expensive pleasance for people, but today it is really necessary thing, which has about all households and utilize them for different necessity, but as it was as in yesteryear, today car industry besides feels and faces many different jobs. What will be tomorrow cipher knows, how transit and car industry can transform, possibly we can woolgather about something more, about something incredible in this sector. Meaning ofCommon Transport Policy Since the entry into force of the Treaty of Rome in 1958, the conveyance industry, faithful retainer that it is, has undergone important alteration in order to follow to the growing and demands of international trade. [ 7 ] The Treaty of Rome provides the legal footing for the creative activity of a common conveyance policy. Following to agriculture and commercial policy the Common Transport Policy is one of the three common policies specially mentioned n Article 3 of the Treaty as one of the activities the Community must prosecute in order to set up a common market and increasingly toA and increasingly come close the economic policies of the Member StatesAÂ » . Irrespective of the Treaty commissariats, conveyance policy left under the control of the Member States. The Member States pursue different conveyance policies and proceed from different bases for State intercession. [ 8 ] Common policy means redeveloping the policies of Member States to organize a individual Community policy: a procedure of integrating culminating is supranational conveyance policy. [ 9 ] The chief purpose of the policy is to eschew the difference between Member States. Conveyance industry has few differences from other industrial sectors. When we are speaking about economic Fieldss: Conveyance is used as an instrument of State economic policy. Transport is a major industry by such standards, that two is measured: employment, investing and etc. [ 10 ] In conveyance sectors are employed high per centum of workers. Transport sector of EU-15 employed 6.2 million people, and that increased to 7.4 million after expansion of 2004. [ 11 ] Conveyance industry is of import activity to other industrial sectors and its degrees of rates are important to the State s economic system. In a market advancing specialised production, the consumer and the manufacturer, both depend on conveyance, to run into their each others demands. The independent bearer, occupies a cardinal place in the market as a whole: this his policies, unless regulated, can impede international trade by know aparting as to charges between manufacturers or besides between consumers. Some ordinances are of import for manners which are covered but Transport, such as route rail, inland, waterway, sea and air, because most of them are viing with each other and sometimes struggles are irreversible. Transport is an industry with public service duties, where authoritiess frequently intervene by compeling some services and besides by commanding the duties. Railwaies are used an instrument of economic policy, where public funding of the substructure is really common. In instance of roads, the edifice of roads frequently depends on the State, but one time the roads are built and unfastened to traffic many different types of users take advantage of their being. Conveyance industry is characterized by projects of dissimilar construction, which provides interchangeable services. Inelasticity in the supply of conveyance owing of the perishableness of its services makes full freedom of competition impracticable. Transport sector is capable to many international understandings, whose some of the Member provinces are parties and have to carry through international duties. In country of inland waterways, the Commission has uncomplete competency because of relationships with 3rd states. The Rhine government, which is established by the Mannheim Convention in 1868, with Central Commission implementing its commissariats, can non be ignored. The Central Commission, within the EC district governs the most of import individual component in inland conveyance. The country of air and maritime conveyance are governed by many international pacts. All this factors which are mentioned above madeA troubles for the Union to develop such as policies, which will spirit the integrating of conveyance services and fulfill the demands of the individual European market. [ 12 ] The most of import alterations in European Transport industry started from 1970s, when increased the use of route conveyance. This gross was truly dramatic and it effected the railroad conveyance. During the 1970s the rail s portion of the rider market has fallen from 10.2 % to 6.3 % . [ 13 ] European railroad increased investing on developing cardinal new techniques and substructures, such as high velocity trains: TGV, Eurostar and etc. , for competition with other conveyance s manners. Besides was mentioned the high addition in air conveyance for long-haul journeys and maritime conveyance has been relegated to the short-haul ferry market. [ 14 ] In the European Union conveyance sector is really of import issue, it provides 4 % of the GDP. Besides as we already mentioned above, it provides employment for EU citizens. In 1991, employees in the conveyance sector constituted between 4 % and 5 % of waged labour. It amounted to 5.6 million people, 2, 509000 of them were employed in route conveyance, 897000 in rail conveyance, 24 000 in inland waterway conveyance, 217000 in maritime and 349000 in air and 1569000 [ 15 ] in other sector which are related to transport industry.A Transport sector is the growing industry in European Union. The demand In industry is by and large proportionate to Gross Domestic Product. Taking the mean one-year economic growing in the European Union since 1970 as 2.6 % , the growing in goods conveyance services has been 2.3 % and rider conveyance services 3.1 % . Conveyance is the nexus which brings together people and merchandises from all European parts, above all the remoter parts. Conveyance in European Union was and is characterized by a great step of authorities innovation and a baffled web of bilateral and many-sided inter-state understandings in which the Member States used to and still take part. [ 16 ] When we speak about Common Transport Policy it is of import to separate three stages of this policy. First stage of the conveyance policy started after the entry into force of Treaty of Rime and continued till 1973-1974. During this stage, the European Community, was concentrated on creative activity of common market fro conveyance by route, inland waterways, railA and opening the national market between all Member States for competition. This thought was formulated in 1961 Memorandum by Commission and in 1962 Action Programme. [ 17 ] First stage of Common conveyance policy involved treatments between Member States and Commission, because the commissariats giver by the Treaty were non concreted to what it should incorporate. At the terminal of the 2nd stage, from 1973, the accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom to the European Community introduced more broad and less land-centred positions into inactive conveyance policy [ 18 ] At the terminal of 1973, A The development of Common Transport Policy was determined once more by the Commission and The Council. In 1974 in maritime and air conveyance sector two of import events took topographic point for development of Common Transport Policy: the Court gave judgement in the Gallic Seamen instance and under the protections of the United Nations, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Code of Conduct for Liner Conference was adopted. [ 19 ] Third stage started from 1983, when the assorted proposals for structured development of the Common Transport Policy, in several memorandums refering the inland ( 1983 ) , air ( 1984 ) and maritime ( 1985 ) sectors. [ 20 ] Talking about Transport policy it is of import to advert the chief factors, which influence, such as: geographics, engineering, wealth. The oldest influence likely lies in the physical characteristics of European geographical environment, which can promote or deter travel. It is comparatively easy to go up and down a river vale such as the Rhine and Danube, much harder to traverse major physical barriers such as the Alps or the Pyrenees other so by air. Most traffic traversing theA English Channel or the Baltic has to travel by the sea, though there is now a Channel Tunnel Between England and France, opened in 1994A and the Oresund span between Denmark and Sweden, opened in 2000. There are four rail tunnels through the Alps and seven route crossings, but some of these are unfastened in summer merely, and the two route tunnels between France and Italy, opened in 1965 and 1980, are single-bore with merely one line of traffic in each way. Heavy-goods traffic is to a great extent dependent on these two narrow tunnels, another under the Gotthard Pass in Switzerland and the one major four-lane main road which crosses the B renner Pass at 1, 372 metres. The lone important rail and route crossings of the Pyrenees follow the Atlantic and Mediterranean seashores. Since these mountain opportunity and sea traversing by and large coincide with national frontiers, which so they have frequently determined, they besides contribute to maintaining national conveyance policies separate. [ 21 ] Sometimes the national frontiers doesntA co-occur the physical barriers. Peoples ever thought about travel and trading goods in topographic points, where they can utilize their ain linguistic communication, were their rights are respected and they have easier entree to the instruction and medical system. It is really interesting in this instance to advert the state of affairs in German after the Second World War.When Germany was divided into two parts its system of roads and railroads, built to ease military and civilian communications on East and West axis, had to be reconfigured to beef up North-South communications on either side of the Iron Curtain. [ 22 ] After the reunion European Union is cut downing the importanceA of national frontiers, for illustration with the creative activity of individual currency of Europe-Euro, but for some people it is hard to traverse the boundary lines and travel to analyze or work, for few of the it is incredible to traverse national boundary lines, even where are no the physical barriers, who can avoid them. Even with the individual European market, the volume of international trade in 1994 was merely approximately 7 % of the tunnage mowed within national frontiers. [ 23 ] Second of import influencing on conveyance policy is engineering. As we already mentioned, when we discussed the history of transportationA , conveyance sector developed many times, during many old ages, A foremost the pess presented the chief conveyance for people, so transports developed by wheel, canvas emmet etc and over the past 250 old ages the steam engine, internal burning engine, the jet engine, and electric grip have each facilitated a step-change in engineering [ 24 ] the chief aim of such as technological revolutions are to do transit more comfy, easier, cheaper and safer. The 3rd factor which has the major influence on conveyance policy is wealth. There is really strong correlativity between economic public presentation as measured by gross domestic merchandise and the growing of goods and rider conveyance. It seemsA that the more we earn, the more we spend on travel and on the ingestion of goods which themselves have to be transported over long distances to make our places.And there is no mark every bit yet that these tendencies will non go on to bring forth a steadily increasing demand for transport.A In 2001 Transport White Paper, the committee estimated that GDP growing of 43 % between 1998 and 2010 will bring forth additions in the motion of riders and goods of 24 % and 38 % receptiveness. [ 25 ] Conveyance policy as we already mentioned above is really of import issue for European Union, because it is importantA policy for economic sector of the Union, for Environment, for Labor Market and besides for competition. And European Union ever tries to implement different schemes to better and reconstructure this policy for the weal-being of the citizens. Manners of Conveyance Transport sector covers different manners such as: route conveyance, railroad, waterway and air conveyance. Development of all these manners is different by times and by constructions. In this portion we will discourse recent developments in European different manners of conveyance sector. Personal mobility has more so doubled from 17km a twenty-four hours in 1970 to 38km in the late 1990s.Road conveyance is Europe s dominant conveyance manner and its laterality continues to turn. Private auto ownership in the EU -15 increased from 232 per 1000 in 1975 to 469per 1000 in 2000 and continues to turn. [ 26 ] Road conveyance at the terminal ofA A 1990s represented 44 % of the goods conveyance market compared with 44 % for short sea transportation, 8 % for rail and 4 % for inland waterways. In rider conveyance it represented 79 % of the market, 5 % of air and besides 6 % of railroads. Development of route conveyance is really of import and interesting instance, because during last old ages the volumeA of route cargo grew by 3.5 % a yearA and 7 % in the instance of cross-border cargo. The roads now take about 75 % of cargo traffic within the EU, compared with less than 50 % in 1970. As respects route conveyance, the cardinal manner is the private auto and growing in auto usage. During last 30 old ages the figure of autos tripled, at an addition of 3 million autos each twelvemonth. For 1975 there were 232 autos per 1000 people and now there are 444 autos per 1000 individuals. [ 27 ] For publicity of more safety conveyance, European Union introduced some statute laws on the driver makings, review of autos, velocity bounds and besides on passenger car of goods, which are unsafe and non safe. In 1997 the European Union launched extremely ambitious run for route safety. In add-on to one-year cheques, random wayside reviews and pollutant emanations analyses have been compulsory since 1998 [ 28 ] . Besides really of import issue is private autos inspectetion, which is obligatory at least every two old ages. European Union has introduced few rigorous emanation criterions and route revenue enhancement system, for publicity of more comfy andA safer route conveyance. Since 1 July 1998, route cabotage in the motion of cargo throughout the individual market has become to the full liberalized [ 29 ] . Another of import manner of conveyance is nautical conveyance, which by virtuousness of the Community s geographics and importance as the universe s biggest trading country, merchandiser transportation and maritime policy are cardinal elements of the Common Transport Policy.A [ 30 ] At the terminal of the twentieth century the highest sum of external trade was transported by sea.A For 1999, 41 % of trade was conducted by sea, 21 % by route, 25 % by rail, and merely 0.5 % by waterways. As we see for this period sea conveyance was dominant in comparing with other manners of transport.A Maritime runs controlled by EU subjects command 35 % of the universe fleet and some 40 % of the European Union trade is carried on vass owned or controlled by European Union s involvements. This sector, including ship building, ports and related industries and services employs around 2.5 million people in the European Union. [ 31 ] The rule of European Union maritime policy is same as other countries of conveyance: competition, safety and protection environment. The procedure of liberalisation and opening up national markets to competition within the European Union is about complete within the exclusion of the southern Member States, which have been allowed a gradual gap of their markets untilA 2004, maritime cabotage has been liberalize since 1999. there is therefore virtually entire freedom to supply services within the European Union. [ 32 ] Sail of autos for 1998 lessening in comparing with 1970 about three times. If for in 10970 is was 32 % , for 1998 it already was merely 11 % . European Union tried to work out this job, because this crisis state of affairs in nautical conveyance effected besides labour market, it cause high unemployment and occupation losingss for subjects of European Union.A The European Union has attempted to rectify this state of affairs by new scheme dwelling of: Positive steps to assist operators confronting international competition, such as assistance to continue EU employment ; Promotion of sea transportation as an environmentally friendly alternate to route conveyance ; Bettering sea makings of crews by developing and helping suited preparation plans ; Bettering safety ; Supporting research and technological development [ 33 ] ThirdA of import manner of conveyance is railway conveyance. This mode accounts many old ages and treatments about this type of conveyance started when during 1920s, when the route conveyance development began to impend the fiscal stableness of railroad companies. At this clip increased the engagement of authorities in conveyance sector, it was of import to explicate new policy, which could regulateA such asA competitions n this sector, largely between route and railroad conveyance. All over Europe, from 1930sA railroads became progressively dependent on authorities support and some were taken into public ownership. [ 34 ] Government tried to work out this job, such as competition between different manners in same sector and they emerged the scheme, to apportion railA for long distance conveyance of goods and riders and route conveyance for shorter journeys for passengers.A A For about 30 old ages rail conveyance still is characterized by worrying diminution and largely in cargo conveyance. In 1970 the railroads carried 32 % of all freightA in the EU-15. By 1996 the figure was merely 14 % to 73,7 % . Railway rider traffic besides declined from 10 % in 1970, to 6 % in 1999. [ 35 ] Rail conveyance is less competitory than route draw. Road, unlike rail, provides a door-to-door services. Since railroads are a safe and environmentally clean manner of conveyance, regenerating them is a top precedence of the European Union s Common Transport Policy. [ 36 ] On January 1998, began the constitution of international cargo expresswaies. The intent of this invention was to better the quality of rail cargo. There are four expresswaies in service at present: North-South, associating ports in northern Europe with those of the South ; Scan ways, associating Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden ; Belifret, associating Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy and Spain ; UK- Sopron, which is still under treatment, which would supply an east-west path from the United land to Hungary, with onward connexions to other cardinal and eastern European states. [ 37 ] By the Council in 2001 were adopted new directives, which are known as Rail Infrastructure Package and subsequently it was implemented by member States in 2003. The intent of these execution is to develop a Trans-European Rail Freight Transport, which would get down with 50000 kilometers of length. This means that any accredited railroad operator can run freight services across member provinces over the full rail web in Europe. [ 38 ] Like forA maritime, route and railroad manners of conveyance, for air hose the 1980-1990s was besides veryA of import period of development.During this period the staff of air hose rose from 325000 to 350000 and the figure of employment in this sector besides increased from 435000 to 490000 over the same period. Europe s airdrome substructure is coming nearer to the bounds of its capacity and more investing is being undertaken or planned in about all the Member states. [ 39 ] In liberalisation of air transport we can advert three phases: First bundle, which is adopted in 1987, a first relaxation of the regulations. In 1990, a 2nd bundle in pricing and the allotment of place capacity. The 3rd bundle in the liberalisation of air conveyance started in 1993. The steps that brought market liberalisation included: A Community licence to all European Union carries for unrestricted entree to all domestic markets ; A flat playing field for competition ; The allotment of slots to enable new carries to come in the liberalized market, despite the congestion jobs ; Land passing services to be bit by bit opened up to competition andA to accomplish full liberalisation by December 2003. Competition in computerized reserve systems which handle 70 % of all engagements, and are owned by the major air hoses: a ordinance prohibits these air hoses from giving themselves and sole advantages ; Airport charges to be regulated so that the hindrance consequence they might hold on new operators will be reduced ; Strict regulations on province assistance to air hoses to guarantee that it is given merely for intents of restructuring without falsifying market competition: under these regulations, the European Union has authorized province assistance to seven air hoses since 1987 ( Sabena, Iberia, AerA Lingus, TAP, Air France, Olympic Airways and Alitalia ) ; The acceptance of Commission on 27 September 2000 of a proposal for a European parliament and Council ordinance, which would set in topographic point a Community system of air safety and environmental ordinance and would put up an air power safety bureau ; A policy of integrating of environmental concerns into sectoral policies, called for by the Treaty of Amsterdam. [ 40 ] The terrorist onslaught, which held in New York in 2001 has threaten the air power industry. This fact thought air power industry into bi crisis. Many air hose companies reduced their flights and that of class had large input on employment in the air hose sector. And all these descended universe economic system into large recession. Till now all these manners of conveyance continues to develop, but with different success, because all of them have their single construction and importance for citizens, concern, trade, environment, safety, riders and by and large for whole European Union. Some of them are less developed and some more. And still the competition between all these manners is high. European Union as we already discussed above attempts to work out the job, by implementing different statute laws, directives and schemes. But any manner the route conveyance today still takes the dominant place in European Union, and few figures can exemplify this issue. Private auto ownership in the EU 15 increased after 1075 boulder clay 2000, in 1975 it was 232000 and in 2000- 469000. Furthermore the distance traveled by all route vehicles has tripled over the same period. The strong growing in route conveyance has been the instance in both the riders and cargo sector. Road portion of the rider market has risen from 73 % % in 1970 to 83 % in 2002 at the disbursal of both rail and coach and manager conveyance. Road cargo has increase its portion of inland conveyance from 52 % in 1970 to 75 % in2002. All other cargo sectors experienced a worsening portion of cargo conveyance in the EU-15 fell from 30 to 13 % over the period. [ 41 ] From all these figures we ve seen the existent public presentation of the citizens of European Union European Automobile Industry The Auto sector is frequently credited as the engine room of Europe.. The European Union is the fatherland to a competitory and advanced car industry that generates activity throughout the economy-from stuffs and parts supply, to Research and Development and fabrication, to gross revenues and after-sales services. [ 42 ] The car was non invented merely in one twenty-four hours and it accounts many old ages and centuries. The creative activity of car design firstA was drawn by Leonardo district attorney Vinci and Isaac Newton. Subsequently in 1769 was invented the first automotive route vehicle by Gallic discoverer Nicolas J. Cugnot, which used steam engine for powering its vehicle.A So as we see the history of Automobile industry started from Europe and European discoverers were foremost in this invention. Today European Union is the universes largest manufacturer of motor vehicles. [ 43 ] Automobile industry today is one of the biggest employer industries, it employs straight 2 million European Citizens and 10 million are employed in associated industries. Another of import issue is Research and Development for Automobile industry, because today it represents the largest investor in this sector and provides for them of import support and its investing is much higher so investings from other private sectors. The purpose of European Conveyance policy as we already have discussed is to cut down the distinguish between different manners of conveyance and we know that the route conveyance today is the dominant sector, with highestA per centum of use from the citizens of European Union and has highest portion on the conveyance market. The car industry is giving active input to the new alteration of Europe s Conveyance Policy, expected to be defined in the following Commission s term. Manufacturers welcome that the Commission has seasonably started the readying of the reappraisal, in front of the expiring of the ten-years range of the 2001 White Paper. One of the cardinal dogmas of the 2001 Conveyance policy was the construct of average displacement, the thought, that modes other than route conveyance should be encouraged for the interest of the environment. It besides promoted de-coupling route conveyance from economic growing. [ 44 ] The chief aims of the European Commission sing the automotive sector are: To beef up the fight of the automotive industry ; To finish, adapt and simplify the Internal Market regulative model ; AÂ · To promote globalization of the technical regulatory framework through UNECE To promote globalization of the technical regulatory framework through UNECE [45] ACEA, the Assosiaction of European Car Manufactures , established in 1991 and it represents the thirteen major European car, truck and bus manufacturers. All ACEA member companies are key players in the global automotive market and have integrated automobile operations (research, design, development, production and sales) in the European Union, where they produce around 18 million vehicles per year, provide direct employment to 2 million people and support the job of another 10 million fellow workers. ACEA Members are: BMW Group, DAF Trucks, DaimlerChrysler, FIAT, Ford of Europe, General Motors Europe, MAN Nutzfahrzeuge, Porsche, PSA Peugeot Citroen, Renault, Scania, Volkswagen, Volvo Trucks., Jaguar Land Rover,AÂ   Toyota Motor Europe. [46] The importance of Automobile industry for Europe The European automotiveAÂ   industry has long history in Europe and today car manufactors have production in almost all Member States .Europe is the worlds largest vehile producer , 1/3 of the 50 million cars produced globally are manufactured in the European Union [47]. According to fiffurs of 2007 ,the European Union was the highest producer of Motor vehicles, in comparison with other big producers of Motor vehicles in the world. ( Table 1) As the worlds largest producer of motor vehicles, the EUs automobile industry is a key driver of growth ,exports, innovations and jobs. The industry represents 6.5 percent of the EUs manufactoring sector and invests more than 20 billion euro per year in research and development , making in the EUs largest private investor in research and development. Automotive manufactoring is closely linked with other sectors key supliers include electronics, mechanical and electrical enginaring, information technology , steel, chemicals, plastics,metals and rubber. 1/5 of the EUs steel and more than a third of its aluminum production go into automobile production. [48] The automobile industry is one of the biggest employers in European Union. 2.2 million citizens are employed directly in the industry, whre they produce manufacturing, equipment and assecories, trailers ,caravane and etc. And 9.8 million persons are employed in sectors , which are related to the automobile industry, in other manufacturing activities, such as sale and distribution of motor vehicles, sale of motor fuels, renting of atomobiles, manufacture of electrical equipment for engines and vehicles, manufacture of electric motors, generators and transformers, computers and other information processing equipment and etc. ( table 2) For each Member State automobile industry has their importance.Major automobile markets in Europe: France, Germany,Italy and United Kingdom gain differently from this sector and have their separate and interesting history in auto industry. France French inventors played leading roles in achieving the technological breakthroughs that have made the European industry what it is today. Indeed, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot may well have been the first to build a self-propelled vehicle in 1769 a steam-driven contraption called a fardier a vapeur. Nearly a century later, Etienne Lenoir received a patent for the first successful internal combustion engine. The creation in 1894 of De Dion-Bouton et Cie laid the foundation of the French auto industry. The company produced its first petrol-engined four-wheeled car in 1899 and by 1900 was the worlds largest carmaker with annual production of 400 cars and 3,200 engines. Other French firsts include the issuing of automobile license plates in 1893. The automotive sector is a key driver of the French economy and the countrys leading employer: provides 298000 direct jobs, mainly at PSA and Renault. Equipment suppliers employ a further 128000 people and business, service and recycling companies employ 493000 staff. France is Europes second largest car producer after Germany and the worlds fifth largest behind the United States, Japan, Germany and China.The motor industrys economic impact is therefore quite substantial: in 2005 alone, automotive industry production, including automobiles and automotive equipment totaled more than a‚Â ¬90bn, a 64 per cent increase in value since 1996. Automotive products represent 15.4 per cent of French exports. The top two national manufacturers, PSA Peugeot Citroen and Renault, account for over half of the domestic market. Foreign manufacturers are not hugely present in France but Swatch produces in Hambach (Lorraine) and Toyota in Valenciennes (Nord-Pas-de-Calais). Across the country, alm ost 40 different vehicle models are produced in 21 assembly plants. It is the largest customer of major industrial sectors such as plastics, industrial rubber, casting and industrial metalworking services. The automotive supply industrys combined turnover is close to a‚Â ¬25bn. With 42 per cent of their production earmarked for export, suppliers are very much focused on the international market. [49] Germany Germany has a special relationship with the motor car.In 1901 it was already producing 900 vehicles a year German engineers such as Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach were pathfinders in the technical development of the internal combustion engine. Germanys famous premium brands of today are coveted around the world. The names of companies such as Porsche, Audi, Mercedes and BMW, as well as the mass market producer, Volkswagen, are synonymous with style and quality. International marques, including Opel (GM) and Ford, are also an important feature on the automotive landscape. Over the past decade, the industry has doubled its revenues and raised its share of manufacturing output from 12 per cent to 19 per cent. The industry consists of a small number of global lead manufacturers supported by a large number of family-owned small and medium-sized suppliers . It generates a turnover of a‚Â ¬226bn and an export surplus of a‚Â ¬80bn. Since reunification, auto manufacturing has become a crucial pillar of the East German economy with seven production centres and over 700 local suppliers. German manufacturers , which includes also Chrysler produced 11.3 million cars in 2006 in 23 countries. German factories turned out 5.8m cars, making it the worlds third largest manufacturer after the USA and Japan. Revenues, which have doubled over the last 10 years, amount to a‚Â ¬236bnAÂ   or 10.5 per cent of national GDP. For German automobile industry is very important employment sector, because every seventh job in Germany depends directly or indirectly on the automotive sector. Some 1.4 million people work in upstream and downstream businesses that are dependent on the automotive sector. One mark of the industrys health is that employment has actually increased by 21 per cent over the past 10 years. While Western Europe remains the focus of production by German vehicle manufacturers and suppliers, national companies also employ a total of 160,000 people across many of the countries that joined the EU in 2004. Their global dimension is marked by establishments in the USA, Mexico and Canada (at over 300 locations) and in China (now running at 140 plants). Germanys supplier industry is as dynamic as it is diverse. Among its biggest suppliers are ThyssenKrupp Technologies, with operations in 240 locations worldwide, 3M Deutschland, which produces over 1,000 different products for the automotive industry, and Michelin Reifenwerke, which has been present in Germany for over a century. There is a high concentration of component suppliers in supporting sectors such as electronics and electrical engineering, information technology, plastics and glass production, metal manufacture and processing, optics and precision mechanics. Given the priority German car designers attach to incorporating high-performance features in their cars, much emphasis is directed towards advanced electronics, innovative measuring tools, just-in-time logistics, turbo-charging systems, light-weight / high-strength engineering materials, catalytic converters, smart engineering and intensive robotic assembly, as well as dedicated software development. [50] Italy There are few countries in Europe , where the motor car is such a strong expression of national and individual identity as in Italy. The nations obsession with the racing fortunes of Ferrari in Formula One reflects its collective love of speed, excitement and beauty. The look of a car matters much to most Italians which is why the country has long been the source of the worlds leading car designers. But during the past century, Italy has also excelled in engineering skills able to develop highly successful low-cost small cars such as the Fiat 500 alongside premium models like Ferrari and Maserati. In the last 30 years these celebrated marques, together with Lancia and Alfa Romeo have been acquired by FIAT, the nations oldest mass producer of automobiles which now accounts for around 90% of Italian car production . The automotive sector in Italy contributes a significant 8.5% to Italian GDP nearly one quarter of the contribution from all manufacturing industries. The sectors total turnover is more than a‚Â ¬54bn with a directly-employed labour force of around 200,000 people. Italys leading international position owes much to the supplier networks specialising in the production of spare parts and accessories. The Turin area and the Piedmont region as a whole accommodate the nations most important industrial clusters. More than 470 component makers, 40% of Italys suppliers are located there ,with 33% of the workforce, with a peak of 75% for suppliers of modules and systems. As a whole, the regional supplier system employs over 43,000 people, about 70% of which is located in the province of Turin. [51] United Kingdom UKs automotive industrysAÂ   size and importance to the national economyAÂ   is an impressive example of survival and growth despite the demise over the last 40 years of large-scale national manufacturers. Automotive firms are leaders in many areas of manufacturing in the UK, while the country is home to the worlds most successful motor sport industry and a number of leading independent automotive design firms. The automotive sector in the UK remains diverse, competitive and world-class. Its crucial importance to the economy is reflected in a manufacturing turnover of over ?47 billion in euro 67.4 billion, total direct and indirect employment of 850,000 and a 10% share of national exports. Britains world-leading design-engineering companies are highly skilled and technologically sophisticated businesses whose products have a truly international penetration. It is estimated that British firms have a 20 per cent share of the independent global market in vehicle design-engineering. The UK has enjoyed good growth in output of automotive and non-automotive engines. Additional investment by Ford will push up production to over 3.5 million light vehicle engines and up to 400,000 truck and non-automotive engines by the end of the decade. The core manufacturing, distribution and servicing business in the UK directly generates a turnover value of ?200 billion in euro 287.16. In 2006, UK-based manufacturers produced 1.44 million cars, 53% of them carrying Nissan, Honda and Toyota badges. Output is sustained by a significant domestic market for new cars with annual registrations averaging 2.38 million over the last ten years. The equivalent average for vans, trucks, buses and coaches was 331,700. Underpinning these markets is a highly sophisticated, fiercely competitive retail and service/maintenance sector, employing more than 550,000 people and generating added value of some ?22 billion -in euro 31.5 annually. The West Midlands remains the main location for the UK industry, accounting for just under 30% of total UK car production. The region hosts a number of major automotive assemblers: Jaguar, Land Rover, Aston Martin and MG Rover, with over 50,000 people employed in the sector. Sitting alongside manufacturers of key components from driveline to engines and electrics, are a large number of material processing and general engineering firms providing a significant base of expertise. Over 2,600 companies are active in the automotive components sector, ranging from the global players to small and medium-sized businesses. Together they contribute over ?4.8 billion in euro 6.9 billion added value and employ some 132,000 people. The sector exports over ?6 billion in euro 8.6 billion worth of goods annually, 75% destined for Europe and over ?1 billion in euro 1.4 billion worth travelling to the Americas. [52] Second half of 2008 was crusial for European Automobile industry , the banking system hit the economy, the acess to credit was limited for consumers and bussineses, what caused the redusction in car production and usage. During recession , demand for new cars across Europe had dipped a merely 2%, with comercial vehicle sales down just by 0.4%. By the end of the year , markets for all types of vehicles crashed . in the final quarter , car sales fell 19.3%: some member states reported decline of more than 50% in December alome. Demand for new comercial vehicles across Europe decreased by 24%.A [53]All these facts had direct impact on European Labor market, such as recession caused job losses across the Europe and European Union tries to solve all these problems and improve situation in automobile industry, by implementing different regulations , directives and strategies. Policy makers have a responsibility to protect the interests of citizens and safeguard the natural environment. But they also responsible for creating an environment in which businesses thrive. The independent nature of both : business and environment ,objectives is today perhaps more evident than ever. [54] EU as the worlds biggest motor vehicle producer EU is the worlds largest motor vehicle producer. It relies a strong automotive sector, that means that financial and economic pressure in this sector will effect whole European economy [55]. By motor vehicle production European Union in 2007 was on the first place, it reported the highest percentage of the production in all over the world 26.9%, ( table 3) when Japan showed only 15.9% and China 12.2 %. The lowest motor vehicle production in same period was in Russia ,with a 2.3%. One third of Passenger cars for 2007 was produced by European Union and it was 32% of world whole production, ( table 4) and it was two times more then Chinas and Japans production. Totally motor vehicle production in Europe was 19695044 for 2007, from this number 86.7% was passenger cars production, 9.7% vans production, 3.4%- Trucks and 0.2% Buses production. All member states have different relations with manufacturer production. Few of them are more advanced, like Germany and France and some less. Germany according statistic dates of 2008 is the worlds fourth largest manufacturer, after United States, Japan and China. Its automobile industry is very famous all over the world. Germans auto brands are very good known for all of us, such as: Mercedes-Benz , BMW, Audi. Porsche, Volkswagen and etc. For Germany manufacturing is very important. Germanys economy very much depends on automobile industry, because every seventh person is employed in this sector directly or indirectly. Another big and important player in automobile industry is France, which is second largest producer in Europe after Germany and fifth largest in the world, after United States, Japan, China and Germany. French inventors have leading role in automobile industry, already from history. Countries economy also very much depends on this sector, same as in Germany for France auto sector is important employer. It employs almost 300000 persons directly and more than 600 00 indirectly, in other related sectors. Few figures from table ( table 6)can illustrate the importance of GermanysAÂ   automotive industry for European Union. In Germany for 2007, car production was the highest in whole European Union , by 5,7 million, what was two times more, in comparison with Frances 2.6 million and Spains 2.2 million Germany has many advantages in different fields for automobile industry, such as: personal advantages, market advantage, technological, stable investment environment, physical infrastructure and etc. Personal advantages debunks in labor force of Germany. Germanys excellent highly-skilled labor force has been the key to success for the German automotive industry. Benefiting from the countrys unique education system geared to meet industry needs, the industry can count on a direct workforce of almost 750,000 highly-trained and experienced people. Another important advantage is the market. Germany hosts the largest concentration of Origin Equipment Manufacturer plants in Europe creating considerable production volume, client and product diversification advantages for suppliers. Established suppliers in Germany are able to access nine different OEMs and their respective decision centers, 25 assembly plants (an impressive one third of Europes total installed capacity) as well as production facilities of almost all top 100 tier 1 suppliers. Speaking about technological advantages we have to mention that from machine building to electronics, Germany is the technological leader in all automotive-related industries. Another important advantage of Germany as we already mentioned is physical infrastructure. Located at the heart of Europe, Germany offers a sophisticated infrastructure that integrates state-of-the-art transportation networks with the most modern and cost efficient information technology ( IT ) and telecommunications systems available today. Germans infrastructure is this world class infrastructure which supports the continued success of the highly efficient and smooth operating automotive logistics environment. [56] The highest result of passenger car production in Europe was in 2007 , which accounted 17082037 cars and it was higher then previous years production by 5.5%. World economic recession very hard effected the Automobile industry of Europe in 2008. Production and demand for European vehicles ,which had grown in 2007, began to dip in the first half of 2008. The reason of that was the general slowdown and of course of high oil process . In 2008 the highest Motor Vehicle production In Europe reported again Germany, with 32% of whole production, the second highest producers were SpainAÂ   and France 14% at this period and then came such as countries as Belgium, Poland, Czech republic, Italy and United kingdom with 5% of production. In 2008 were made 18. 4 million vehicles in Europe by 7% less than the 19.7 million produced in 2007. We already discussed production in Germany and France as the biggest producers in Europe , but we also have to mention other three countries , which enter five major Countries, they are: Italy, Spain and United Kingdom. From these five countries the worst d

Is Your Website Accessible

Is Your Website Accessible Build a platform! urge publishing gurus. Establish an online presence! You dutifully obey. Facebook? On it. Twitter? Rule it. Website? Of course, and it rocks! But did you know you might be restricting an entire group of users and customers from accessing your website and hence, from reaching you? This group consists of people with disabilities. The US Census Bureau states nearly 57 million people, thats 19 percent of civilians, have a disability. Youmay have a family member or friend, know a neighbour or student who is disabled. Imagine them trying to do a basic search online that you take for granted. These same people are also doing exactly what the rest of us are: working, enjoying food and drink, leisure and relaxation, sport and adventure. So why should they be prevented from utilising something as normal and taken-for-granted as a website? What is accessibility? Accessibility describes the degree to which a product, service, or environment is available to people. The more the number of people who can use it, the higher its accessibility. Correctly designed and developed websites empower everyone to have equal access to information and services. Examples of accessibility include: Providing text descriptions of images with meaningful links helps blind users using text-to-speech software or text-to-Braille hardware to read the content. Enabling text and images to enlarge helps users with poor eyesight.   Underlining and highlighting hyperlinks helps colour blind users notice them. Making action areas, like hyperlinks and buttons, large; and enabling keyboard navigation of menus helps users who cant control a mouse with precision or cant keep their hands steady. Captioning videos or providing sign language versions helps the deaf. Avoiding excessive flashing, flickering and special effects considers users prone to seizures. Writing content in plain language and illustrating with diagrams helps users with dyslexia and learning difficulties understand better. Is your website accessible enough? There are a number of options online to help you find out. A one-click website accessibility audit likehttp://wave.webaim.org/ is a system test that can identify accessibility problems and provide guidance on remedial steps. A list of other automated tools available to evaluate website features can be found here: w3.org/WAI/ER/tools/index.html. These tools dont test everything, but can provide a good idea of the extent of your websites accessibility. Must I make my website accessible? While accessibility is not required Your website is your showcase to the world, your online home. Youre proud of it and have invested time and resources in making it useful, relevant and dynamic. You want everybody whos anybody to visit it. Follow the four principles of accessibility explained in simple English athttp://devyaniborade.blogspot.com/p/principles-of-web-accessibility.html to make your website more accessible to all.

Small Business Success Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Small Business Success - Essay Example are believed to be driving forces to the success of small businesses and what business starters ought to do to increase likelihood of their businesses success. Most successful small businesses takes adequate time to set goals that give them clarity on the direction to take and how they need to carry out their activities in order to succeed. They are driven by their goals and objective despite the challenges encountered along the way such as stiff competition and lack of adequate finance (Bider and Johannesson 2005, p.627). Success can therefore be elusive especially if a small enterprise does not have a clear goal. Successful enterprises always provide room for alternative process and ideas if the initial one fails to deliver desired results. This ensures that activities are carried on as usual after occurrence of setbacks because alternative solutions complement the initial approach (Olivo 2001, p.45). For example, when workers in a small business resist changes, management can decide to bargain with them until they reach at a neutral position on how to embrace the new changes. They can also decide to abandon introducing new changes especially if they are likely to adversely affect workers morale which, possibly could results to poor performance. Setbacks are almost common in a business set up and they may require skilful approach to handle them. A business should acknowledge challenges and formulate various policies to help bouncing back to the initial position before occurrence of a certain challenge. A firm with determination on what it expects to achieve will always bounce back to the right track even after suffering huge losses because their aim is to hit their target. This is a very important trait among small businesses as it ensures that a business handle their own issues without much ado. The ability of making independent decision puts a business at a higher competitive notch since they do not have to consult others thus enhancing quick decision

About myself Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

About myself - Essay Example I came all the way from this land to the U.S. in the belief that exploring knowledge via other places away from home is vital to life and in pursuit of English studies as well. Prior to migrating in America, I spent all my early school days in Brazil. I had already taken several interesting courses in college which includes subjects in Math, Health, Psychology, Comp, and CPR. Currently, I am enrolled in History, Chemistry, College Algebra, and the last Comp III. I believe that History is an essential part of the curriculum in order for the class, especially for foreign students like me, to acquire a necessary understanding of the U.S. culture. By taking History, I expect to learn about the period when the Americans fought for their independence against British invasion and matters concerning civil rights movements. Furthermore, I wish to find out how American societies were formed during the 19th century and the manners by which men and women expressed their fashion and attitude at that point in time. Much as I expect ease of comprehension in learning the history of the U.S., I look forward to being able to pass each given test, participate well, and share my views in class to yield a remarkable grade at the end of the

Ethics Program for Nonprofit Management Consulting Services Essay Example for Free

Ethics Program for Nonprofit Management Consulting Services Essay Our clients are placing a high level of trust in us and we must honor that commitment by ensuring no confidential information is disseminated outside our company or to those inside the company who may have a conflict of interest. Above all else we will be professional with our clients and work to the best of our ability to provide them with unrivaled service. Since we specialize in working with nonprofit companies the majority of clients we work with will have an Ethical Code as well. When available we will take their Code of Ethics into account for any work we will be doing where we act on their behalf. Since we work with many nonprofit and volunteer based organizations we encourage everyone to volunteer and donate time as they see fit with the following guidelines; 1) Volunteering will not be done to curry favor with the business before they are a client. 1) Volunteering will not be done during an active consulting project with the company you are consulting with. 2) It is up to you to determine if volunteering for one of our clients will result in a conflict of interest. Training Program All New-Hire employees will receive a minimum of Four (4) hours of Ethics training during their first week with the company. At a minimum the following will be covered; 1) Code of Conduct 1) Actual ethical situations that have arisen with the company in the past a. Bribes / Gifts b. Conflicts of Interest c. Relationships with Clients 2) Who to talk to if an ethical situation or question arises d. Owners e. Ethics Point Hotline At the end of the training you should be able to understand the following items (Ferrell, Fraedrich amp; Ferrell, 2008); 1) Recognize Situations that might require ethical decision making 1) Understand the values and culture of the organization ) Evaluation the impact of your ethical decisions on the company 3) The difference between your ethical values and those of the companies. During your training if you have any suggestions to add or have ethical situations you’d like to discuss please do not hesitate to bring it up with the trainer. We understand that everyone has had experiences in personal life and when working with other companies. Those experiences can help us expand and improve upon on our existing training and update our Code of Conduct as required. Training Program – Yearly Refresher At a minimum of once a year, the entire company will convene for an Ethical Situations Round Table. Topics will include newsworthy stories of other companies and any closed ethical issues within the company. This is a time not only to discuss ethical situations but to work as a group in finding the ideal solution to how the company should handle similar issues. We want to be a step ahead and be prepared for events that could affect the company. Reporting/Monitoring of Discussing an Ethical Situation During your time with the company you may run into situations that you would like guidance on. The Owners of the company have an open door policy for talking about these issues. It is better to talk about them before they happen than after they happen though. The Owners will work with you on the situation for the best outcome for the company. They are invested in the company and ensuring the company makes ethical decisions ensures long term growth and profitability. Alternatively we have contract with Ethics Point to provide a hotline for reporting or discussing ethical situations if you do not feel comfortable talking with the owners about the situation in question. Your call to Ethics Point (Hotline Reporting -, 2012) will be confidential but information about the situation will be reported to the owners so they can work through the situation. The company also leverages Microsoft Exchange for monitoring E-mails of all Employees to proactively deal with potential ethical issues that may arise while working with our clients. Due to this type of monitoring we highly recommend that personal issues are not dealt with using your business e-mail address. Investigating Ethical Issues or Situations The company has contracted with Ethics Point to handle the investigation of any serious Ethical situations. Due to the nature of Ethics Violations it can be a conflict of interest in our small company if the Employees or Owners were tasked with these investigations. We also do not want to create a hostile atmosphere during or after the investigation. During an investigation your cooperation with Ethics Point is required. Failure to cooperate with the Investigation will lead to disciplinary actions that may include termination of employment. Disciplinary Action for Ethics Violations While we hope that we are able to provide you with enough training, reinforcement and the cultural atmosphere to be able to avoid an ethical issue, it does happen. Violations of the Code of Conduct will be handled by the CEO with recommendations from Ethics Point if they are if they are handling the case. Action will be based on the following items: 1) Damage of reputation or character of the company 2) Loss of Clients 3) Actions taken by the company to remedy the situation Action taken will be one or more of the following: 1) Additional Ethics Training 2) Leading one of the Yearly Ethical Discussions 3) Volunteer time with the Nonprofit of your choice 4) Time off w/ out Pay or use of vacation 5) Transfer of Account(s) to another consultant 6) Termination of Employment Reviewing and Improving our Ethical Culture At the end of each year after the yearly discussions all aspects of the Ethics code will be reviewed and updated as required. With the ever changing business environment and new situations that are constantly popping up in the media it becomes mandatory that we do our best to keep the Ethics program relevant. With all things relating to the Ethics Program we encourage feedback and suggestions throughout the year, not just at the yearly meeting. All suggestions received throughout the year will be discussed by the owners frequently and any changes to the program will be made. The ethics program belongs just as much the Company as it does the employee. The employees will rely on it as a frame of reference for how to work through difficult situations and the company will rely on it to guide the employees in their daily activities. If the company is successful the employees will be successful. In addition to the yearly meetings and annual review of the Ethics Program, every 3 years Ethics Point will audit the program and supply recommendations that may be implemented.

Declining Efficiency of Investment :: essays papers

Declining Efficiency of Investment It may be useful to put the discussion of performance constraints of the Thai economy briefly in perspective. Over the past 2 decades, the Thai economy has been one of the best performing economies in the world, characterized by sustained high growth rates, averaging 10.3% 1985-90, and 8% in the years prior to the crisis (1990-96). This growth was accompanied by a dramatic decline in the incidence of absolute poverty, from 57% in 1962 to 14% in 1992, with per capita income increasing from $700 per annum in the late 1960s, to $2,700 in 1996. At the same time, rapid growth was accompanied by environmental degradation, resource depletion, and an increasingly unequal distribution of income and wealth. However, on balance a remarkable record of development. During this period of rapid growth and economic transformation, Thailand became increasingly integrated into the world economy through trade and investment flows, and production linkages. As the economy expanded rapidly and became more complex in structure, it posed more and new types of strains and challenges to economic management or â€Å"governance† systems at both the macro (i.e. public policy) and micro (enterprise) levels. As the relative role of the private sector increased in the economy, the importance of enterprise management and performance correspondingly increased. Looking more deeply at Thailand’s performance, manufactured exports grew by about 23% per year between 1980 and 1995, almost doubling during 1992-1995. However, in 1996 export growth fell practically to 0 per cent, with labor-intensive exports usually identified as the main culprit. Certain factors are generally cited as responsible fo r this abrupt and dramatic decline:  · External factors cited included the emergence of new competitors, with the coming on stream of new production facilities in lower income/lower wage countries such as China, Indochina, Philippines, further complicated by the30% devaluation of the Chinese yen in 1994;  · Domestic factors cited generally relate to rising wage rates and overvalued exchange rates. Domestic wage rates during 1991-95 rose about 11%, on average or about 5% increase in real wages per year, cited as the key factor in the slowdown in growth of labor intensive exports. The real effective exchange rate of the baht is estimated to have appreciated by about 15% during 1995-97, primarily because of the linkage to the US$, which appreciated against the yen. While the above factors suggest that Thailand was losing its edge in low cost, labor intensive exports, these are at best partial explanations for the overall decline in export performance.

Sociology: Ethnicity and Crime

Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess explanations for apparent ethnic differences in involvement in crime (21 Marks) According to official statistics, ethnic minorities are largely linked to crime and their involvement if often over exaggerated. Item B shows that black people make up 11% of the prison population, despite the fact they make up just 2. 8% of the population. Whilst, Asians make up 4. 7% of the population yet 6% of the prison population.These statistics emphasise that ethnic minorities are over-represented in the criminal justice system, and so the use of alternate sources of statistics may help show a more accurate picture. Victim surveys ask individuals what crimes they have been victims of and help identify the correlation between ethnicity and offending. They tend to show a great deal of intra- ethnic crime but also include several limitations as they rely on victims memory of events which could result in over- identifying certain ethnic groups as the off ender.Whereas, self- report studies ask individuals to disclose their own dishonest and violent behaviour. The findings of self- report studies challenge the stereotypes of black people as being more likely than whites to offend. However, self-report studies also have their own limitations as inconsistency is shown through the evidence of ethnicity and offending. There are ethnic differences at each stage of the criminal justice process. Policing is often seen to be oppressive, as members of ethnic minorities are more likely to be stopped and searched with Asians being twice more likely than blacks to be stopped by the police. Feature Article –  Sociology TestThese allegations have meant ethnic minorities have limited faith in the police and therefore feel under protected. Police racism is one of the many causes behind stop and searches with the MacPherson report identifying institutional racism within the police force. These types of racist behaviour and stereotypes are endorsed and upheld by the â€Å"canteen culture† of rank and file officers and lead to deliberate targeting of stop and searches. In 2007, just over a quarter of the male prison population were from minority ethnic groups.As such, blacks were five times more likely to be in prison than whites while blacks and Asian offenders are more likely than whites to serve longer prison sentences. This is because ethnic minorities are less likely to be granted bail while awaiting trial. The official statistics on the criminal justice process shows striking differences between ethnic groups, and these patterns have been examined by lef t realists and neo- Marxists. Left realists, Lea and Young focus on the statistics which represent real differences in rates of offending by different ethnic groups.They argue that crime is the product of relative deprivation, subculture and marginalisation whereby racism has led to the marginalisation and economic exclusion of ethnic minorities, who face a higher level of poverty and unemployment etc. In contribution to this, the media’s emphasis on consumerism promotes relative deprivation amongst ethnic groups, who are unable to attain these materialistic goods by legitimate means. This results into the formation of delinquent subcultures, most notable amongst unemployed black males.Utilitarian crimes are most likely to come of this, such as theft and robbery as a means of coping with relative deprivation. As these groups are likely to be marginalised, it means they are also likely to express their frustrations through non-utilitarian crime such as violence or rioting- thi s explains the involvement with crime by ethnic groups. Lea and Young acknowledge that the police may act in unjust ways but they don’t believe that discriminatory policing fully explains the differences in the statistics.Evidence to support this is that 90% of crime is reported to the police by the public rather than discovered by the police themselves. Lea and Young conclude their argument that the statistics represent real differences in levels of offending between ethnic groups, and that these are caused by real differences in levels of relative deprivation and marginalisation. Despite this, Lea and Young are criticised on several grounds that arrest rates for Asians may be lower than that of Blacks yet this isn’t because they are less likely to offend but because police stereotype the two differently.On the other hand, neo- Marxism tends to view statistics as a social construct resulting from racist labelling and discrimination in the criminal justice system. Item B brings to light Gilroy’s argument over the myth of black criminality that â€Å"black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes of African Caribbean’s. In reality, this group is no more criminal than any other. However, as a result of the police and criminal justice system acting on these racist stereotypes, ethnic minorities come to be criminalized and therefore appear in greater numbers in the official statistics†.The item helps us understand the extent of stereotypes and its effects on ethnic groups, yet Gilroy furthers his argument by identifying working class crime is a political act of resistance to capitalism and a racist society. Lea and Young refute Gilroy’s argument, by suggesting that most crime is intra- ethnic, so it can’t be seen as an anti-colonial struggle against racism. Lea and Young also criticise Gilroy for romanticizing street crime as somehow revolutionary, when it’s nothing of the sort.Moreover, Stuart Hal l et al also adopts a neo- Marxist perspective and found that the 1970’s saw a moral panic over black â€Å"muggers† that served the interests of capitalism. As unemployment and strikes were increasing, the ruling class needed to use force to maintain social control. In their view, the emergence of the black mugger and the capitalist crisis was no coincidence, as the black mugger was used a scapegoat to distract attention from true causes of problems such as unemployment. By presenting black youth as a threat to society, the moral panic began dividing the working class on racial grounds.However, Hall et al doesn’t argue that black crime was solely a product of media and police labelling. The crisis of capitalism was increasingly marginalising black youth through unemployment which resulted them into committing petty crime as a means of survival. Hall et al’s study of policing the crisis was criticised for not presenting how the capitalist crisis led to a moral panic, nor do they provide evidence that the public were blaming crime on blacks. During recent years, the focus of ethnicity and crime has largely been on the over representation of black people in the criminal justice system.However, more recently there has been shift in other issues such as the racist victimisation of ethnic minorities. Racist victimisation was brought into greater public focus with the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence and the police handling of the case, where most information is brought to life by victim surveys such as the British Crime Survey. The British Crime Survey found that most crimes go unreported and found that the risk of being a victim varies by ethnic group, whereby statistics showed that people from mixed ethnic backgrounds had a higher risk (36%) of becoming a victim of rime than blacks, Asians and whites faced. While the statistics recorded the instances of victimisation, they do not necessarily capture the victims’ experience of i t. Sampson and Phillips note, racist victimisation tends to be on going over time, with repeated minor instances of abuse and harassment interwoven with incidents of physical violence. This has led minority ethnic communities becoming more active in responding to victimisation, with situational crime prevention measures to organised self- defence campaigns taking place.Such responses need to be understood in the context of accusations of under- protection by the police, who fail to record or investigate reported incidents properly. The Macpherson enquiry into the Stephen Lawrence case concluded that the police investigation into death of the black teenager was â€Å"marred by a combination of professional incompetence, institutional racism and a failure of leadership by senior officers†. Ultimately, we have learnt the differences in ethnicity and crime but have established ethnic minorities also becoming subjected to victimisation.

Cat in the Rain Essay

Cat in the Rain is a short story about an American couple on vacation to Italy. They are in their first year of marriage. The husband has a dismissive attitude towards the wife and the wife always wants more. In the story the couple has a lot of selfishness going on in their relationship. The husband ignores his wife’s needs and the wife and the wife is not satisfied with her husband. The theme of this story has a lot to do with loneliness in the couples’ relationship. In this story the American couple is trapped in their hotel room with nothing to do because of the raining weather. The husband wants to read and ignore his wife. So the wife is looking out the window and sees a cat crouched from the rain. She wants to go downstairs and get the cat. She tells her husband about it and he shrugs it off. The wife goes down herself and the story talks a lot about how she likes the inn keeper. I find that this part of the story most affected me when the husband ignored his wife’s wants and needs. She really wanted that cat because it was something for her to do and feel good about. Her husband obviously doesn’t satisfy her which makes her feel lonely and the cat would keep her company. The wife in this story wants to feel appreciated and loved like any other woman would. Being married for their first year is beginning to be hard for them. Hemingway tries to tell about a first marriage of a couple he once knew and how hard it is for some to always keep that happiness. Couples always have disagreements but should never feel alone. A husband should not ignore his wife’s needs and in this story that is what he does instead of trying to satisfy his wife. Close to the ending of this story the wife was not able to find the cat. She came back in the hotel room very sad. She tries to tell her husband but he does not listen. She starts complaining about what she wants to change about herself. She wants â€Å"her hair to be long so she can brush it† and she wants a cat. The husband can only say that he likes things the way they are. He tells her to shut up. He does not care what the wife’s needs are or what she wants. He does not want to listen and he just wants to read which is what he wishes she would do. This part of the story really interested me because I could not get as to why the husband doesn’t respond to what she asks for. The wife desperately wants attention and he is not giving it to her. The story of the American couple explains a lot about how the wife tries to get attention from the husband. Hemingway talks about a cat but behind that cat this story means more. The lack of attention her husband gives her may make her feel that she is restricted on expressing herself and keeps most of her feelings inside. The cat stays compact to stay dry outside, which is how the wife feels she has to be with her husband to make him happy. She hides herself constantly from him. In this story it relates to her as American wife and never tells her name. This kind of says that she is nothing but an American wife which is exactly how she feels. Hemingway had a unique way of telling the story but the way he told it had a lot of meaning to it. He showed the couples loneliness in a different way.

Pride and Prejudice Summary

'Pride and Prejudice' Summary Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice follows Elizabeth Bennet, a spirited and clever young woman, as she and her sisters navigate romantic and social entanglements within 19th-century Englands country gentry. Chapters 1-12 The novel opens with Mrs. Bennet informing her husband that the nearby great house, Netherfield Park, has a new tenant: Mr. Bingley, a wealthy and unmarried young man. Mrs. Bennet is convinced that Mr. Bingley will fall in love with one of her daughters- preferably Jane, the eldest and by all accounts the kindest and most beautiful. Mr. Bennet reveals that he has already paid his respects to Mr. Bingley and that they all shall meet soon. At a neighborhood ball, Mr. Bingley makes his first appearance, along with his two sisters- the married Mrs. Hurst and the unmarried Caroline- and his best friend, Mr. Darcy. While Darcy’s wealth makes him the subject of much gossip at the gathering, his brusque, arrogant manner quickly sours the whole company on him. Mr. Bingley shares a mutual and immediate attraction with Jane. Mr. Darcy, on the other hand, is not so impressed. He dismisses Janes younger sister Elizabeth as not pretty enough for him, which Elizabeth overhears. Although she laughs about it with her friend Charlotte Lucas, Elizabeth is wounded by the comment. Mr. Bingleys sisters invite Jane to visit them at Netherfield. Thanks to the machinations of Mrs. Bennet, Jane gets stuck there after journeying through a rainstorm and becomes ill. The Bingleys insist upon her staying until she is well, so Elizabeth goes to Netherfield to tend to Jane. During their stay, Mr. Darcy begins to develop a romantic interest in Elizabeth (much to his own annoyance), but Caroline Bingley is interested in Darcy for herself. Caroline is particularly irritated that the object of Darcys interest is Elizabeth, who doesn’t have equal wealth or social status. Caroline endeavors to eliminate Darcys interest in Elizabeth by speaking negatively about her. By the time the girls return home, Elizabeth’s dislike for both Caroline and Darcy has only grown. Chapters 13-36 Mr. Collins, an obsequious pastor and distant relative, comes to visit the Bennets. Despite not being a close relation, Mr. Collins is the designated heir of the Bennets estate, as the Bennets have no sons. Mr. Collins informs the Bennets that he hopes to â€Å"make amends† by marrying one of the daughters. Nudged by Mrs. Bennet, who is certain that Jane will soon be engaged, he sets his sights on Elizabeth. Elizabeth, however, has other ideas: namely George Wickham, a dashing militiaman who claims that Mr. Darcy cheated him out of a parsonage he had been promised by Darcy’s father. Although Elizabeth dances with Darcy at the Netherfield ball, her loathing is unchanged. Meanwhile, Mr. Darcy and Caroline Bingley convince Mr. Bingley that Jane does not return his affections and encourage him to leave for London. Mr. Collins proposes to a horrified Elizabeth, who rejects him. On the rebound, Mr. Collins proposes to Elizabeths friend Charlotte. Charlotte, who is worried about getting older and becoming a burden on her parents, accepts the proposal. The following spring, Elizabeth goes to visit the Collinses at Charlotte’s request. Mr. Collins brags about the patronage of the nearby great lady, Lady Catherine de Bourgh- who also happens to be Mr. Darcy’s aunt. Lady Catherine invites their group to her estate, Rosings, for dinner, where Elizabeth is shocked to find Mr. Darcy and his cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam. Elizabeth’s unwillingness to answer Lady Catherine’s prying questions does not make a good impression, but Elizabeth learns two important pieces of imformation: Lady Catherine intends to make a match between her sickly daughter Anne and her nephew Darcy, and Darcy has mentioned saving a friend from an ill-advised match- that is, Bingley and Jane. Much to Elizabeths shock and fury, Darcy proposes to her. During the proposal, he cites all the obstacles- namely, Elizabeths inferior status and family- that his love has overcome. Elizabeth refuses him and accuses him of ruining both Jane’s happiness and Wickham’s livelihood. The following day, Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter containing his side of the story. The letter explains that he genuinely believed Jane to be less in love with Bingley than he was with her (though her family and status did play a role, he admits apologetically). More importantly, Darcy reveals the truth of his family’s history with Wickham. Wickham was a favorite of Darcy’s father, who left him a â€Å"living† (a church posting on an estate) in his will. Instead of accepting the inheritance, Wickham insisted that Darcy pay him the value in money, spent it all, came back for more, and, when Darcy refused, tried to seduce Georgiana, Darcy’s teenage sister. These discoveries shake Elizabeth, and she realizes that her prized powers of observation and judgment did not prove correct. Chapters 37-61 Months later, Elizabeth’s aunt and uncle, the Gardiners, offer to bring her along on a trip. They end up touring Pemberley, Mr. Darcys home, but are assured that he is away from home by the housekeeper, who has nothing but praise for him. Darcy makes an appearance, and despite the awkwardness of the encounter, he is kind to Elizabeth and the Gardiners. He invites Elizabeth to meet his sister, who is excited to meet her. Their pleasant encounters are short-lived, as Elizabeth receives news that her sister Lydia has eloped with Mr. Wickham. She hurries home, and Mr. Gardiner tries to assist Mr. Bennet in tracking the couple down. News soon arrives that they have been found and are to be married. Everyone assumes that Mr. Gardiner paid Wickham off to marry Lydia instead of abandoning her. When Lydia returns home, however, she lets slip that Mr. Darcy was at the wedding. Mrs. Gardiner later writes to Elizabeth and reveals that it was Mr. Darcy who paid off Wickham and made the match. Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy return to Netherfield and pay a call on the Bennets. At first, they are awkward and leave quickly, but then return almost immediately, and Bingley proposes to Jane. The Bennets receive another unexpected visitor in the middle of the night: Lady Catherine, who has heard a rumor that Elizabeth is engaged to Darcy and demands to hear that it is not true and never will be true. Insulted, Elizabeth refuses to acquiesce, and Lady Catherine leaves in a huff. Rather than stopping the match, Lady Catherine’s escapade has the opposite effect. Darcy takes Elizabeths refusal to acquiesce as a sign that she might have changed her mind about his proposal. He proposes again, and this time Elizabeth accepts as they discuss the mistakes that finally got them to this point. Mr. Darcy asks Mr. Bennet’s permission for the marriage, and Mr. Bennet gives it willingly once Elizabeth reveals to him the truth of Darcy’s involvement with Lydia’s marriage and of her own changed feelings for him.

SAT Subject Test Dates 2015 - 2016 How to Choose

SAT Subject Test Dates 2015 - 2016 How to Choose SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re planning on applying to highly selective colleges, you may be required to take two or three SAT Subject Tests. Subject Tests are offered almost as many times throughout the year as the regular SAT. In this article, I’ll go through the dates and registration deadlines and give you lists of the subjects that are offered on each date. SAT Subject Test Dates: 2015-16 SAT Subject Tests are offered on five of the six regular SAT test dates coming up during this school year (the regular SAT test date in March will not offer SAT Subject Tests).Here are the dates and registration deadlines: SAT Subject Test Date Normal Registration Deadline Late Registration Deadline November 7, 2015 October 9, 2015 October 27, 2015 December 5, 2015 November 5, 2015 November 23, 2015 January 23, 2016 December 28, 2015 January 12, 2016 May 7, 2016 April 8, 2016 April 26, 2016 June 4, 2016 May 5, 2016 May 25, 2016 Keep in mind that not all subject tests are offered on each of these dates.This chart lists all the SAT Subject Tests and whether they will be offered on each of the five test dates during this school year.The most popular tests, like Biology and Math 1 and 2, are offered on all dates. Subject Test Nov. 7, 2015 Dec. 5, 2015 Jan. 23, 2016 May 7, 2016 Jun. 4, 2016 Biology E/M âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Chemistry âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Physics âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Math 1 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Math 2 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Literature âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ US History âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ World History âÅ"“ âÅ"“ French âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ German âÅ"“ Spanish âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Modern Hebrew âÅ"“ Italian âÅ"“ Latin âÅ"“ âÅ"“ French with Listening âÅ"“ German with Listening âÅ"“ Spanish with Listening âÅ"“ Chinese with Listening âÅ"“ Japanese with Listening âÅ"“ Korean with Listening âÅ"“ Here's another table with a different organization that may make it easier for you to see which tests are offered on each date. I only included the subject tests that are offered on some dates but not all. Biology E/M, Chemistry, Physics, Math 1, Math 2, Literature and US History are offered on all test dates, so they are not included in this chart: Test Date World History French German Spanish Modern Hebrew Italian Latin Nov. 7, 2015 Dec. 5, 2015 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Jan. 23, 2016 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ May 7, 2016 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Jun. 4, 2016 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Test Date French with Listening German with Listening Spanish with Listening Chinese with Listening Japanese with Listening Korean with Listening Nov. 7, 2015 âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ âÅ"“ Dec. 5, 2015 Jan. 23, 2016 May 7, 2016 Jun. 4, 2016 Which Test Date Should You Choose? If you know you have to take subject tests, it’s important to plan strategically.You should make sure that you take your subject tests on a date that doesn’t conflict with other major commitments.Plan on taking subject tests at a much earlier or later date than the regular SAT so that you have time to study for both and don’t end up with low scores on either. May and June are usually good SAT subject test datesbecause they’re at the end of the school year, so you will be at your maximum level of knowledge for the subjects (assuming you took the relevant class this year). Rememberthat you don’t have to wait until your junior year to take subject tests.If you take a class sophomore year that directly pertains to one of the subject tests, you can go ahead and take the test at the end of that school year.Taking subject tests while the material is still fresh in your mind is the best way to avoid long hours of studying.Some tests, like many of the language tests, are not offered in the spring, so make sure you verify that you can take your chosen test on the date that interests you. You should also note that you can take up to three subject tests on one test date (although only one listening subject test is allowed per test date).Each subject test is an hour long, so even if you take three tests in one day you won’t spend as much time at the test center as you would for the regular SAT. You may not need to take three tests; the number depends on the requirements of the colleges where you plan on applying. Most selective schools only require students to take two subject tests.If you're taking two subject tests on one test date, you should try to choose them wisely so that they pair well together. For example, if you need to take Math 2 and math is a tough subject for you, you should choose a second subject test in an area where you feel more comfortable so you can balance out your stress levels. Don't go too far down Stress Street or you won't be able to get back to Relaxation Road. Relaxation Road: the name of my debut ambient chill album. What's Next? Are you wondering what scores you should aim for on SAT Subject Tests? Learn more about what a good score might mean for you. You may have heard that some SAT Subject Tests are easier than others. Find out which tests are the easiest and why. If you're worried about time pressure on subject tests, check out this article that describes the length and format of each test and how you can overcome issues with time. Need a little extra help prepping for your Subject Tests? We have the industry's leading SAT Subject Test prep programs (for all non-language Subject Tests). Built by Harvard grads and SAT Subject Test full or 99th %ile scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so that you get the most effective prep possible. Learn more about our Subject Test products below: